The Aramaic Targumim and Jewish Biblical Interpretation: Translation, Paraphrase, and Theological Expansion

Summary of the Argument

Overview of Key Arguments and Scholarly Positions

When Ezra read the Law to the returned exiles in Jerusalem around 445 BCE, the Levites "gave the sense, so that the people understood the reading" (Nehemiah 8:8). This brief notice may describe the earliest form of what would become the Aramaic Targumim—interpretive translations that bridged the gap between the sacred Hebrew text and communities who spoke Aramaic as their daily language. By the first century CE, Aramaic had replaced Hebrew as the vernacular of Palestinian Judaism, making these translations essential for synagogue worship and biblical instruction.

The Targumim are far more than mechanical translations. They represent a distinctive mode of biblical interpretation that combines translation with theological commentary, legal clarification, and homiletical expansion. Where the Hebrew text is terse, the Targumim elaborate. Where anthropomorphic language might mislead, they introduce theological safeguards. Where legal implications remain unstated, they make them explicit. Martin McNamara's Targum and Testament Revisited (2010) demonstrates that these Aramaic paraphrases preserve exegetical traditions that illuminate the interpretive environment of both rabbinic Judaism and early Christianity.

The major Targumim fall into two geographical traditions. The Babylonian Targumim—Targum Onqelos to the Pentateuch and Targum Jonathan to the Prophets—achieved official status in the rabbinic academies of Babylonia by the fifth century CE. These texts exhibit relatively restrained translation technique, though even Onqelos includes interpretive expansions at theologically sensitive points. The Palestinian Targumim, by contrast, preserve more expansive paraphrastic traditions. Targum Neofiti, discovered in the Vatican Library in 1956 by Alejandro Díez Macho, provides our most complete witness to the Palestinian tradition. Targum Pseudo-Jonathan incorporates extensive midrashic material, including anachronistic references that date portions of the text to the Islamic period, though it preserves earlier traditions as well.

Paul Flesher and Bruce Chilton's The Targums: A Critical Introduction (2011) argues that the Targumim developed through three stages: oral translation in the synagogue (beginning in the Second Temple period), written texts for the use of translators (first to third centuries CE), and standardized editions that achieved authoritative status (fourth to seventh centuries CE). This developmental model explains both the antiquity of some targumic traditions and the late date of the manuscripts we possess.

The interpretive techniques employed in the Targumim reveal consistent hermeneutical patterns. Anti-anthropomorphism is pervasive: where Genesis 3:8 describes God "walking in the garden," Targum Onqelos reads "the voice of the Memra of the Lord God walking in the garden." The Aramaic term Memra ("Word") functions as a buffer between divine transcendence and creaturely reality. Robert Hayward's Divine Name and Presence: The Memra (1981) traces this theological concept through the Targumim, noting parallels with Philo's Logos theology and the Johannine prologue, though the precise relationship remains debated.

Messianic interpretation appears throughout the Targumim, though not always in ways that align with Christian readings. Targum Jonathan on Isaiah 52:13 identifies the Suffering Servant as "my servant the Messiah," but the subsequent verses redistribute the suffering to Israel's enemies rather than to the Messiah himself. This interpretive move—acknowledging messianic identity while rejecting vicarious suffering—illuminates the exegetical debates between Jews and Christians in the early centuries. Bruce Chilton's The Isaiah Targum (1987) provides detailed analysis of these messianic traditions and their theological implications.

The relationship between the Targumim and rabbinic midrash has generated considerable scholarly debate. Steven Fraade's research demonstrates that identical interpretive traditions appear in both targumic and midrashic sources, suggesting a common pool of exegetical material adapted to different literary forms. The Targumim were performed orally in the liturgical context of synagogue worship, while midrash circulated in the study houses of the rabbinic academies. Yet both drew upon shared traditions of biblical interpretation that were transmitted through multiple channels in ancient Jewish communities.

Alexander Samely's The Interpretation of Speech in the Pentateuch Targums (1992) analyzes how the Targumim handle direct discourse in the biblical text. When God speaks to Moses at the burning bush (Exodus 3:14), the Hebrew reads "I AM WHO I AM." Targum Onqelos renders this as "I am he who is and who will be," while Targum Neofiti expands it to "I am he who said to the world 'Be!' and it was, and who will say to it 'Be!' and it will be." These variations reveal how translators wrestled with the theological implications of the divine name and its relationship to God's eternal existence and creative power.

The dating of targumic traditions remains one of the most vexing questions in the field. While the practice of Aramaic translation is ancient, the written texts we possess reflect centuries of development and revision. Distinguishing early traditions from later additions requires careful analysis of linguistic features, theological concepts, and parallels with other Jewish literature. Some scholars argue that certain targumic traditions predate the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE and may have been known to Jesus and the New Testament authors. Others maintain that most of the material in our extant Targumim reflects the rabbinic period (second to seventh centuries CE). The discovery of Aramaic fragments at Qumran, including portions of a Job Targum (11QtgJob), confirms that written Aramaic translations existed by the first century BCE, though these early texts differ significantly from the later rabbinic Targumim.

Critical Evaluation

Assessment of Strengths and Limitations

The scholarly study of the Targumim has produced significant insights while leaving important questions unresolved. One major achievement has been the recognition that targumic traditions preserve ancient exegetical material that predates the written texts we possess. The discovery of the Job Targum at Qumran (11QtgJob), dated paleographically to the first century BCE, confirms that written Aramaic translations existed in the Second Temple period. Yet this Qumran text differs markedly from the later rabbinic Targumim in both translation technique and theological perspective, raising questions about the relationship between early and late targumic traditions.

McNamara's work on Targum-New Testament parallels has been both influential and controversial. He identifies numerous points of contact: the Targumic Memra theology and the Johannine Logos, the targumic expansion of the Aqedah (binding of Isaac in Genesis 22) and Pauline atonement theology, the targumic treatment of the divine name and early Christological titles. Critics argue that many of these parallels reflect common Jewish exegetical traditions rather than direct literary dependence, and that the late date of our targumic manuscripts makes it difficult to prove that specific traditions were current in the first century. The methodological challenge is formidable: how do we date oral traditions that were only written down centuries after their origin?

The anti-anthropomorphic tendency of the Targumim raises theological questions about the relationship between divine transcendence and divine immanence. When Genesis 28:13 describes the Lord "standing above" Jacob's ladder, Targum Onqelos reads "the glory of the Lord standing above him." When Exodus 24:10 reports that Moses and the elders "saw the God of Israel," Onqelos renders it "they saw the glory of the God of Israel." Bernard Grossfeld's commentary on Onqelos (1988) documents hundreds of such modifications, arguing that they reflect rabbinic concern to protect divine transcendence against misunderstanding. Yet one might ask whether this interpretive strategy, however well-intentioned, diminishes the biblical testimony to God's personal presence and relational engagement with his people. The Hebrew Bible's anthropomorphic language is not primitive theology requiring correction but a deliberate rhetorical strategy for communicating divine personality and covenant relationship.

The messianic interpretation in Targum Jonathan to Isaiah 52:13-53:12 illustrates both the value and the limitations of targumic evidence for understanding ancient Jewish messianism. The Targum clearly identifies the Servant as "my servant the Messiah" (52:13), confirming that at least some Jewish interpreters read this passage messianically. Yet the Targum radically reinterprets the suffering: "He will deliver up the nations to slaughter" (53:5), and "He will pray for our sins, and our iniquities will be forgiven for his sake" (53:5). The Messiah conquers rather than suffers; Israel's enemies bear the punishment. This reading strategy—messianic identification combined with reinterpretation of suffering—may reflect polemic against Christian claims about Jesus as the suffering Messiah. Chilton argues that this targumic tradition preserves pre-Christian Jewish interpretation, while others contend it represents a later Jewish response to Christian exegesis. The debate turns on the dating of Targum Jonathan, which remains uncertain despite extensive linguistic and theological analysis.

Alexander Sperber's critical edition of the Targumim (1959-1973) established the textual foundation for modern targumic studies, but significant textual problems remain. The manuscript tradition is complex, with substantial variation between witnesses. Targum Neofiti, for example, exists in a single manuscript (Vatican Neofiti 1) dated to the sixteenth century, though the text it preserves is demonstrably ancient. The Fragment Targum survives in multiple manuscripts that preserve different selections of verses, suggesting that it represents a collection of variant readings rather than a complete translation. Pseudo-Jonathan contains anachronistic references to the wife and daughter of Muhammad (Exodus 26:5 in some manuscripts), proving that the text underwent revision as late as the Islamic period, yet it also preserves traditions that parallel material in Neofiti and may be quite ancient. Disentangling the layers of tradition in these complex texts requires sophisticated linguistic and literary analysis.

The liturgical context of targumic performance shaped the interpretive character of these texts in ways that scholars are only beginning to appreciate. The Mishnah (Megillah 4:4-10) and Tosefta (Megillah 3:21-41) preserve regulations governing synagogue translation: the translator must stand while the reader sits, must not read from a written text, must translate the Torah verse by verse but the Prophets three verses at a time, and must not translate certain passages deemed inappropriate for public reading. These regulations suggest that the meturgeman (translator) functioned as both interpreter and preacher, mediating between the sacred Hebrew text and the Aramaic-speaking congregation. The oral, performative character of the Targum meant that it could be adapted to the needs of particular communities and occasions, explaining the textual fluidity we observe in the manuscript tradition.

One significant limitation of current scholarship is the tendency to treat "the Targumim" as a monolithic tradition when in fact we are dealing with multiple texts produced in different times, places, and communities. Targum Onqelos reflects the theological sensibilities of the Babylonian rabbinic academies. Targum Neofiti preserves Palestinian traditions that may predate the standardization of Onqelos. Pseudo-Jonathan incorporates material from multiple sources and periods. Each text requires analysis on its own terms before comparative conclusions can be drawn. Flesher and Chilton's typology of targumic translation techniques—literal, expansive, and paraphrastic—provides a useful framework for distinguishing different approaches to the translation task.

The question of Targumic influence on the New Testament remains contentious. When John 1:14 declares "the Word became flesh," is this indebted to targumic Memra theology? When Hebrews 11:17-19 interprets the Aqedah, does it draw on targumic traditions about Isaac's willing self-offering? When Paul describes Christ as "our Passover lamb" (1 Corinthians 5:7), does he presuppose targumic expansions that connect the Passover lamb with atonement? These questions cannot be answered with certainty given the dating problems, but the parallels are striking enough to warrant continued investigation. At minimum, the Targumim and the New Testament share a common exegetical environment—the world of Second Temple and early rabbinic Judaism—and studying the Targumim illuminates the interpretive assumptions and techniques that shaped how Jews read their Scriptures in the centuries surrounding the birth of Christianity.

Relevance to Modern Church

Contemporary Applications and Ministry Implications

The Targumim provide the contemporary church with a window into the interpretive world of Jesus and the apostles. Since Jesus spoke Aramaic and taught in the synagogues of Galilee and Judea, he would have heard the Torah and Prophets read in Hebrew followed by Aramaic translation. The targumic traditions current in first-century Palestine may have shaped how Jesus and his earliest followers understood the Old Testament Scriptures. When Jesus reads from Isaiah 61:1-2 in the Nazareth synagogue (Luke 4:16-21), he would have heard not only the Hebrew text but also its Aramaic rendering, which may have included interpretive expansions that illuminated the messianic significance of the passage.

For preachers, the Targumim model how to bridge the gap between ancient text and contemporary audience. The meturgeman in the synagogue faced a challenge similar to that of the modern expositor: how to make an ancient text speak to people whose language, culture, and concerns differ from those of the original audience. The Targumim demonstrate that faithful communication of Scripture requires more than word-for-word translation; it demands interpretation that makes the meaning clear and the application relevant. Yet the Targumim also warn against the danger of over-interpretation—of reading so much into the text that the original meaning is obscured or distorted. The balance between fidelity to the text and relevance to the audience remains the central challenge of biblical preaching.

The anti-anthropomorphic tendency of the Targumim raises important questions about how we speak of God. Modern Christians, like ancient Jews, must navigate between two dangers: crude anthropomorphism that reduces God to human scale, and abstract transcendence that makes God remote and impersonal. The biblical language of God's "hand," "face," and "heart" is metaphorical, but the metaphors communicate genuine truth about God's power, presence, and compassion. The targumic substitution of "the glory of the Lord" or "the Memra of the Lord" for direct references to God reflects a reverent concern to protect divine transcendence, but it may also diminish the biblical testimony to God's personal engagement with his people. Pastors must help congregations understand that biblical anthropomorphisms are neither primitive theology nor literal description, but carefully chosen language that communicates the personal character of the God who enters into covenant relationship with his people.

The messianic interpretation in the Targumim illuminates the diversity of Jewish messianic expectation in the Second Temple period and helps explain why many Jews rejected Jesus' messianic claims. The targumic reading of Isaiah 53—a conquering Messiah who defeats Israel's enemies rather than a suffering servant who bears the sins of his people—represents one strand of Jewish messianic hope. This expectation of a political-military Messiah who would liberate Israel from Roman oppression shaped the disciples' initial understanding of Jesus' mission (Acts 1:6) and made the crucifixion a devastating scandal (Luke 24:21). The early Christian proclamation that the crucified Jesus was the Messiah required a radical reinterpretation of messianic texts, reading them through the lens of Jesus' death and resurrection. The Targumim help us understand both the Jewish interpretive traditions that the New Testament authors inherited and the innovative readings they developed in light of the Christ event.

For Jewish-Christian dialogue, the Targumim provide valuable common ground. Both traditions share the Hebrew Bible as Scripture, and both have developed interpretive traditions that go beyond the plain sense of the text. Jews and Christians can study the Targumim together, recognizing that these texts preserve exegetical traditions that predate the parting of the ways between Judaism and Christianity. Such study fosters mutual understanding and respect, even where interpretive disagreements remain. The targumic reading of Isaiah 53 differs from the Christian reading, but both readings take the text seriously and wrestle with its theological implications. Dialogue about these different interpretive traditions can be more fruitful than debate about which reading is "correct."

The Targumim also speak to contemporary discussions about Bible translation philosophy. Should translations aim for formal equivalence (word-for-word correspondence with the original) or dynamic equivalence (thought-for-thought rendering that prioritizes clarity and readability)? The Targumim demonstrate that ancient translators recognized the need for both approaches. Targum Onqelos tends toward formal equivalence, preserving the structure and vocabulary of the Hebrew text where possible. The Palestinian Targumim tend toward dynamic equivalence, expanding and paraphrasing to make the meaning clear. Modern translation projects can learn from this ancient wisdom: different contexts and purposes call for different translation strategies, and no single approach is adequate for all situations.

Pastors who understand targumic interpretation can better explain difficult Old Testament passages to their congregations. When Genesis 22:8 records Abraham's statement that "God will provide for himself the lamb for a burnt offering," Targum Neofiti expands this to include Isaac's willing participation: "Abraham said, 'The Memra of the Lord will prepare for me a lamb; and if not, you are the lamb for the burnt offering, my son.'" This targumic tradition, which portrays Isaac as a willing participant in his own sacrifice, illuminates the typological connection between Isaac and Christ that the New Testament develops (Hebrews 11:17-19). Understanding the targumic background enriches the preacher's exposition of both the Genesis narrative and its New Testament interpretation.

The liturgical context of the Targumim reminds the church that Scripture is meant to be read aloud in the gathered assembly, not merely studied privately. The ancient synagogue practice of reading the Hebrew text followed by Aramaic translation created a rhythm of hearing and understanding, of sacred language and vernacular explanation. Contemporary worship can recover this rhythm through responsive readings, dramatic presentations of biblical narratives, and preaching that moves between careful exegesis and contemporary application. The goal is not merely to inform the mind but to form the community—to shape a people who know the Scriptures and live by them.

Finally, the Targumim challenge the church to take seriously the ongoing task of biblical interpretation. The targumic tradition developed over centuries, with each generation adding its insights and addressing its questions. The church's interpretive tradition is similarly dynamic, as each generation reads Scripture in light of its own context and concerns. This does not mean that the meaning of Scripture changes, but it does mean that the application of Scripture must be continually renewed. The Targumim model a hermeneutic of faithful creativity—rooted in the text, responsive to tradition, and engaged with contemporary questions. This is the task of biblical interpretation in every age.

Implications for Ministry and Credentialing

Pastors can use targumic traditions to illuminate New Testament quotations of the Old Testament. When preaching on John 1:14 ("the Word became flesh"), explain how the targumic Memra concept provides background for understanding the Johannine Logos. When teaching Hebrews 11:17-19, reference the targumic tradition of Isaac's willing self-offering to enrich the typological connection between Isaac and Christ.

Bible study leaders should help congregations understand that all translation involves interpretation. Use examples from the Targumim to show how ancient translators wrestled with difficult passages, making the same kinds of decisions that modern translators face. This builds appreciation for the complexity of biblical interpretation and the need for careful study.

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